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环境伦理学的自由主义扩展
Marshall‟s Libertarian Extension echoes a civil liberty approach (i.e. a commitment to extend equal rights to all members of a community). In environmentalism, though, the community is generally thought to consist of non-humans as well as humans. Libertarian Extension encompasses those theories that extend individual human rights to individual non-human animals and possibly even the inanimate. Michael Smith classified the extension of rights to non-human animals a biocentric ethic, since it focuses on the rights of biotic entities. Andrew Brennan, however, was an advocate of ecological humanism (eco-humanism), the argument that all ontological entities, animate and inanimate, can be given ethical worth purely on the basis that they exist. The work of Arne and his collaborator Sessions also falls under the Libertarian Extension, although they preferred the term “deep ecology.” Deep ecology is the argument for the intrinsic value or inherent worth of the environment—the view that it is valuable in itself. Their argument, incidentally, falls under both the Libertarian Extension and the Ecological extension.
Peter Singer‟s work can be categorized under Marshall‟s Ecological extension. He reasoned that the “expanding circle of moral worth” should be redrawn to include the rights of non-human animals, and not to do so would be guilty of speciesism. Singer found it difficult to accept the argument from intrinsic worth of abiotic or “non-sentient” (non-conscious) entities, and concluded in his first edition of Practical Ethics that they should not be included in the expanding circle of moral worth. This approach is essentially then, bio-centric.
绿色无政府主义的概念
Green anarchism is a school of thought within anarchism which puts an emphasis on the environment. Some green anarchists can be described as anti-civilization anarchists and sometimes anarcho-primitivists, though not all green anarchists and anti-civilization anarchists are primitivists. Likewise, there is a strong critique of technology among some green anarchists, though not all reject it entirely. Sometimes green anarchism is said to be techno-positive or
techno-negative to differentiate between those who advocate use of advanced green technology to create and maintain an anarchist society and those who mainly see civilization and modern technology as something negative.
贸易支持者和环保主义者之间的争论
There are two main arguments that are debated among free trade supporters and the environmentalists. First, free traders believe that economic growth will generate more opportunities for environmental protection, whereas environmentalists focus on the increasing environmental burden caused by economic growth. Second, in relieving the environmental effects of trade, environmentalists focus on trade policy, while free traders tend to focus on environmental policy.
Case studies are necessary to identify the likely effects of trade liberalism for particular products and to investigate whether or not this development is favorable for the environment. From an analysis of trade liberalization of the coal and food sector: Trade liberalization may not only generate large global income gains, but may also likely reduce global environmental damage from coal consumption and farming. Thus, from a welfare economic viewpoint and seen from a world trade perspective, globalization should enhance economic efficiency. But there is considerably less consensus among ecological economics researchers on what this means in practice, or on the social costs or benefits of globalization for society at large. Changes in international trade patterns, markets, technologies and communication patterns affect both the economy and the environment.
Globalization has been spread worldwide ever since the age of Industrial Revolution. It has proved to create a country that is more independent and wealthy with the advantage of free trade, and vast rights from the WTO.
人类活动导致动物栖息地的破坏
Most of the species extinctions from 1000 AD to 2000 AD are due to human activities, in particular destruction of plant and animal habitats. Raised rates of extinction are being driven by human consumption of organic resources, especially related to tropical forest destruction. While most of the species that are becoming extinct are not food species, their biomass is converted into human food when their habitat is transformed into pasture, cropland, and orchards. It is estimated that more than 40% of the Earth‟s biomass is tied up in only the few species that represent humans, livestock and crops.
As an ecosystem decreases in stability as its species are made extinct, these studies warn that the global ecosystem is destined for collapse if it is further reduced in complexity. Factors contributing to loss of biodiversity are: overpopulation, deforestation, pollution (air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination) and global warming or climate change, driven by human activity. These factors, while all stemming from overpopulation, produce a cumulative impact upon biodiversity.
