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完整心理学
How people perceive a well-organized pattern or whole, instead of many separate parts, is a topic of interest in Gestalt psychology. According to Gestalt psychologists, the whole is different than the sum of its parts. Gestalt is a German word—meaning configuration or pattern.
There are a number of principles by which people organize isolated parts of a visual stimulus into groups or whole objects. There are five main laws of grouping: proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and common fate. A sixth law, that of simplicity, encompasses all of these laws. Although most often applied to visual perception, the Gestalt laws also apply to perception in other senses. When we listen to music, for example, we do not hear a series of disconnected or random tones. We interpret the music as a whole, relating the sounds to each other based on how similar they are in pitch, how close together they are in time, and other factors. We can perceive melodies, patterns, and form in music. When a song is transposed to another key, we still recognize it, even though all of the notes have changed.
1. Proximity: The law of proximity states that the closer objects are to one another, the more likely we are to mentally group them together
2. Similarity: The law of similarity leads us to link together parts of the visual field that are similar in color, lightness, texture, shape, or any other quality
3. Continuity: The law of continuity leads us to see a line as continuing in a particular direction, rather than making an abrupt turn
4. Closure: According to the law of closure, we prefer complete forms to incomplete forms. This tendency allows us to perceive whole objects from incomplete and imperfect forms.
5. Common fate: The law of common fate leads us to group together objects that move in the same direction.
6. Simplicity: Central to the approach of Gestalt psychologists is the law of simplicity. This general notion, which encompasses all other Gestalt laws, states that people intuitively prefer the simplest, most stable possible organizations. Not only does perception involve organization and grouping, it also involves distinguishing an object from its surroundings. Notice that once you perceive an object, the area around that object becomes the background.
弗洛伊德的人格理论
The development of gender roles in different forms of feminism gives us a revealing overview of Freud’s personality theory. It is relatively easy, however, to find oneself torn between open-heartedly going along with Freud’s view of personality as a dynamic system of psychological energy which is a very complex, yet insightful approach to the development of personality. The nature of the id, ego, and superego, and the psychosexual stages that these three structures focus on during a course of one’s development, give a plethora of reasons to believe in the existence of a critical period in gender development. Freud’s theory suggests that the way in which the id, ego, and superego evolve and the way in which they proliferate in the first six years of a child’s life will influence the child’s emotional attachment to his/her parent of the same sex and, as consequence, the child’s gender identification. It is not Freud’s belief about the id, ego, and superego that raises our eyebrow, but rather his rigid sex-based generalization of gender
development. However, Freud’s generalization seems to underestimate the impact of genetics and broader social cues, and to overestimate children’s cognitive capabilities during the maturing stage and the impact of the child-parent relationship on children’s gender development.
希波克拉底观点： 四大性格类型
In the middle of the 15th century B.C.E., Hippocrates explained the four temperaments in terms of dominant humors in the body: melancholic, sanguine, phlegmatic, or choleric. The melancholic, he claimed, was dominated by yellow bile in the kidneys, the sanguine by humors in the blood, the phlegmatic by phlegm, and the choleric by the black bile of the liver. Hippocrates was simply adding to the ancient Greek insight that all things reduced to earth, air, water and fire. Each of the four elements had its dualities: hot/cold and dry/moist. A person’s physical, psychological, and moral qualities could easily be understood by his/ner temperament, his/ner dominant humors, the four basic elements, or whether he/she was hot and wet or cold and dry. The ancient personality type indicator worked for over one thousand years. Today, most of us have abandoned Hippocrates’ personality scheme because we do not find it to have any meaningful use.
