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由感觉到知觉
Organizing raw sensory stimuli into meaningful experiences involves cognition, a set of mental activities that includes thinking, knowing, and remembering. Knowledge and experience are extremely important for perception, because they help us make sense of the input to our sensory systems. You could probably read the text, but not as easily as when you read letters in their usual orientation. Knowledge and experience allowed you to understand the text. You could read the words because of your knowledge of letter shapes, and maybe you even have some prior experience in reading text upside down. Without knowledge of letter shapes, you would perceive the text as meaningless shapes, just as people who do not know Chinese or Japanese see the characters of those languages as meaningless shapes. Reading, then, is a form of visual perception. Note that in the example above, you did not stop to read every single letter carefully. Instead, you probably perceived whole words and phrases. You may have also used context to help you figure out what some of the words may be. For example, recognizing upside may have helped you predict down, because the two words often occur together.
获取知识的四大条件
The four requirements for knowledge are: S knows that P if (1) S knows that P is true; (2) S believes that P is true; (3) S is justified in believing that P is true; (4) S’s justification in believing that P does not rest on any false beliefs. Without these requirements, you cannot have knowledge. Your thought may still be true, however, you cannot know something if it is possible it is not true. This brings us to how you know if what you think is true. However, it is impossible for us to have this certainty. Infallible knowledge is impossible for humans to obtain based on the fact that there is always a chance that we are mistaken. Yet, the Epistemist argues: the refutation of skepticism is pure and simple. I know that there is a piece of paper in front of me, for I see a piece of paper in front of me. Skepticism says that I do not know this. Therefore skepticism is wrong. However, just as in the Epistemist’s example, the only way we can obtain knowledge is through our five senses. Whether we learn something from a class lecture, reading a book, or touching something, we are relying on our senses to convey the knowledge to us.
知识的交流和传播
Symbolic representations can be used to indicate meaning and can be thought of as a dynamic process. Hence the transfer of the symbolic representation can be viewed as one ascription process whereby knowledge can be transferred. Other forms of communication include imitation, narrative exchange along with a range of other methods. There is no complete theory of knowledge transfer or communication.
While many would agree that one of the most universal and significant tools for the transfer of knowledge would be the different systems of writing, argument over the usefulness of the written word exists, however, with some scholars skeptical of its impact on societies. The scholar Socrates recounts the story of Thamus the Egyptian king and Theuth the inventor of the written word. In this story, Theuth presents his new invention “writing” to King Thamus, telling Thamus that his new invention “will improve both the wisdom and memory of the Egyptians”. King Thamus is skeptical of this new invention and rejects it as a tool of recollection rather than retained knowledge. He argues that the written word will infect the Egyptian people with fake knowledge as they will be able to attain facts and stories from an external source and will no longer be forced to mentally retain large quantities of knowledge themselves.
Andrew Robinson also highlights, in his work The Origins of Writing, the possibility for writing to be used to spread false information and therefore the written word to decrease social knowledge. People are often internalizing new information which they perceive to be knowledge but are in reality fill their minds with false knowledge.
创新的定义
A convenient definition of innovation from an organizational perspective is given by Luecke and Katz (2003), who wrote: “Innovation is generally understood as the introduction of a new thing or method. Innovation is the embodiment, combination, or synthesis of knowledge in original, relevant, valued new products, processes, or services.”
Innovation typically involves creativity, but is not identical to it: innovation involves acting on the creative ideas to make some specific and tangible difference in the domain in which the innovation occurs. For example, Amabile (1996) propose: “All innovation begins with creative ideas. We define innovation as the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization. In this view, creativity by individuals and teams is a starting point for innovation; the first is necessary but not sufficient condition for the second”.
For innovation to occur, something more than the generation of a creative idea or insight is required: the insight must be put into action to make a genuine difference, resulting in, for example, new or altered business processes within the organization, or changes in the products and services provided.
