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科学解释
In addition to providing predictions about future events, we often take scientific theories to offer explanations for those that occur regularly or have already occurred. Philosophers have investigated a scientific theory that has successfully explained a phenomenon or what makes a scientific theory explanatory. One early and very influential theory of scientific explanation was put forward by Hemple and Oppenheim in 1948. Their Deductive-Nomological (D-N) model of explanation says that a scientific explanation succeeds by subsuming a phenomenon under a general law. Although ignored for a decade, this view was subjected to substantial criticism, resulting in several widely believed counter examples to the theory.
In addition to their D-N model, Hemple and Oppenheim offered other statistical models of explanation which would account for statistical sciences. These theories have received criticism as well. Salmon attempted to provide an alternative account for some of the problems with Hemple and Oppenheim’s model by developing his statistical relevance model. In addition to Salmon’s model, others have suggested that explanation is primarily motivated by unifying disparate phenomena or primarily motivated by providing the causal or mechanical histories leading up to the phenomenon (or phenomena of that type).
科学推理的可行性
The most powerful statements in science are those with the widest applicability. Newton’s Third Law—“for every action there is an opposite and equal reaction”—is a powerful statement because it applies to every action, anywhere, and at any time.
But it is not possible for scientists to have tested every incidence of an action, and found a reaction. How is it, then, that they can assert that the Third Law is in some sense true? They have, of course, tested many, many actions, and in each one have been able to find the corresponding reaction. But can we be sure that the next time we test the Third Law, it will be found to hold true?
科学现实主义和工具主义
Two central questions about science are (1) what are the aims of science and (2) how ought one interpret the results of science? Scientific realists claim that science aims at truth and that one ought to regard scientific theories as true, approximately true, or likely true. Conversely, a
scientific antirealist or instrumentalist argues that science does not aim(or at least does not succeed) at truth and that we should not regard scientific theories as true. Some antirealists claim that scientific theories aim at being instrumentally useful and should only be regarded as useful, but not true, descriptions of the world. More radical antirealists, like Thomas Kuhn or Paul Feyerabend, have argued that scientific theories do not even succeed at this goal, but that later scientific theories offer no objective improvement over previous theories.
Realists often point to the success of recent scientific theories as evidence for the truth (or near truth) of our current theories. Anti-realists point to either the history of science, epistemic morals, or widely termed postmodern criticisms of objectivity as evidence against scientific realism. Some anti-realists attempt to explain the success of our theories without reference to truth while others deny that our current scientific theories are successful at all.
全球化
Technological development, from better transportation and carrier services to the telephone and mass media, has created a smaller, more integrated world. Now, the ICT revolution is making the world even smaller and more integrated. Communications, trade and employment, personal and political transactions are now occurring on a global scale, in real time, ignoring boundaries between states.
Nobel Laureate Joseph Stiglitz defines globalization as “...the closer integration of the countries and peoples of the world which has been brought about by the enormous reduction of costs of transportation and communication, and the breaking down of artificial barriers to the flows of goods, services, capital, knowledge, and (to a lesser extent) people across borders”.
It is important to underscore that globalization is not just an economic phenomenon. It affects all aspects of life.
At least four factors have contributed to globalization: (1) technological change, particularly the ICT revolution; (2) the spread of market-based systems; (3) domestic politics—pro-globalization forces are more politically significant; and (4) inter-state rivalries.
