【官方指南】GRE OG阅读题大全之哺乳动物的智商进化历程
- 2015年01月23日16:13 来源：小站整理
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The evolution of intelligence among early large mammals of the grasslands was due in great measure to the interaction between two ecologically synchronized groups of these animals, the hunting carnivores and the herbivores that they hunted. The interaction resulting from the differences between predator and prey led to a general improvement in brain functions; however, certain components of intelligence were improved far more than others.
The kind of intelligence favored by the interplay of increasingly smarter catchersand increasingly keener escapers is defined by attention — that aspect of mind carrying consciousness forward from one moment to the next. It ranges from a passive, freefloating awareness to a highly focused, active fixation. The range through these states is mediated by the arousal system, a network of tracts converging from sensory systems to integrating centers in the brain stem. From the more relaxed to the more vigorous levels, sensitivity to novelty is increased. The organism is more awake, more vigilant; this increased vigilance results in the apprehension of ever more subtle signals as the organism becomes more sensitive to its surroundings. The processes of arousal and concentration give attention its direction. Arousal is at first general, with a flooding of impulses in the brain stem; then gradually the activation is channeled. Thus begins concentration, the holding of consistent images. One meaning of intelligence is the way in which these images and other alertly searched information are used in the context of previous experience. Consciousness links past attention to the present and permits the integration of details with perceived ends and purposes.
The elements of intelligence and consciousness come together marvelously to produce different styles in predator and prey. Herbivores and carnivores develop different kinds of attention related to escaping or chasing. Although in both kinds of animal, arousal stimulates the production of adrenaline and norepinephrine by the adrenal glands, the effect in herbivores is primarily fear, whereas in carnivores the effect is primarily aggression. For both, arousal attunes the animal to what is ahead. Perhaps it does not experience forethought as we know it, but the animal does experience something like it. The predator is searchingly aggressive, innerdirected, tuned by the nervous system and the adrenal hormones, but aware in a sense closer to human consciousness than, say, a hungry lizard’s instinctive snap at a passing beetle. Using past events as a framework, the large mammal predator is working out a relationship between movement and food, sensitive to possibilities in cold trails and distant sounds — and yesterday’s unforgotten lessons. The herbivore prey is of a different mind. Its mood of wariness rather than searching and its attitude of general expectancy instead of anticipating are silk-thin veils of tranquillity over an explosive endocrine system.
6. The author refers to a hungry lizard (line 31) primarily in order to
A. demonstrate the similarity between the hunting methods of mammals and those of nonmammals
B. broaden the application of the argument by including an insectivore as an example
C. make a distinction between higher and lower levels of consciousness
D. provide an additional illustration of the brutality characteristic of predators E. offer an objection to suggestions that all animals lack consciousness line
7. It can be inferred from the passage that in animals less intelligent than the mammals discussed in the passage
A. past experience is less helpful in ensuring survival
B. attention is more highly focused
C. muscular coordination is less highly developed
D. there is less need for competition among species
E. environment is more important in establishing the proper ratio of prey to predator
8. According to the passage, improvement in brain function among early large mammals resulted primarily from which of the following?
A. Interplay of predator and prey
B. Persistence of free-floating awareness in animals of the grasslands
C. Gradual dominance of warm-blooded mammals over cold-blooded reptiles
D. Interaction of early large mammals with less intelligent species
E. Improvement of the capacity for memory among herbivores and carnivores
9. According to the passage, as the process of arousal in an organism continues, all of the following may occur EXCEPT A. the production of adrenaline
B. the production of norepinephrine
C. a heightening of sensitivity to stimuli
D. an increase in selectivity with respect to stimuli
E. an expansion of the range of states mediated by the brain stem
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In the United States between 1850 and 1880, the number of farmers continued to increase, but at a rate lower than that of the general population.
1. Which of the following statements directly contradicts the information presented above?
A. The number of farmers in the general population increased slightly in the 30 years between 1850 and 1880.
B. The rate of growth of the United States labor force and the rate of growth of the general population rose simultaneously in the 30 years between 1850 and 1880.
C. The proportion of farmers in the United States labor force remained constant in the 30 years between 1850 and 1880.
D. The proportion of farmers in the United States labor force decreased from 64 percent in 1850 to 49 percent in 1880.
E. The proportion of farmers in the general population increased from 68 percent in 1850 to 72 percent in 1880.
A ten-year comparison between the United States and the Soviet Union in terms of crop yields per acre revealed that when only planted acreage is compared, Soviet yields were equal to 68 percent of United States yields. When total agricultural
acreage (planted acreage plus fallow acreage) is compared, however, Soviet yield was 114 percent of United States yield.
2. From the information above, which of the following can be most reliably inferred about United States and Soviet agriculture during the ten-year period?
A. A higher percentage of total agricultural acreage was fallow in the United States than in the Soviet Union.
B. The United States had more fallow acreage than planted acreage.
C. Fewer total acres of available agricultural land were fallow in the Soviet Union than in the United States.
D. The Soviet Union had more planted acreage than fallow acreage.
E. The Soviet Union produced a greater volume of crops than the United States produced.
For hot desert locations with access to seawater, a new greenhouse design generates freshwater and cool air. Oriented to the prevailing wind, the front wall of perforated cardboard, moistened and cooled by a trickle of seawater pumped in, cools and moistens hot air blowing in. This cool, humidified air accelerates plant growth; little water evaporates from leaves. Though greenhouses normally capture the heat of sunlight, a double-layered roof, the inner layer coated to reflect infrared light outward, allows visible sunlight in but traps solar heat between the two layers. This heated air, drawn down from the roof, then mixes with the greenhouse air as it reaches a second sea-water-moistened cardboard wall at the back of the greenhouse. There the air absorbs more moisture, which then condenses on a metal wall cooled by seawater, and thus distilled water for irrigating the plants collects.
For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
3. It can be inferred that the process described in the passage makes use of which of the following?
A. The tendency of hot air to rise
B. The directional movement of wind
C. The temperature differential between the sea and the desert
For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
4. It can be inferred that the greenhouse roof is designed to allow for which of the following?
A. The avoidance of intense solar heat inside the greenhouse
B. The entry of sunlight into the greenhouse to make the plants grow
C. The mixture of heated air with greenhouse air to enhance the collection of moisture
Many critics of Emily Brontë’s novel Wuthering Heights see its second part as a counter point that comments on, if it does not reverse, the first part, where a romantic reading receives more confirmation. Seeing the two parts as a whole is encouraged by the novel’s sophisticated structure, revealed in its complex use of narrators and time shifts.
Granted that the presence of these elements need not argue for an authorial awareness of novelistic construction comparable to that of Henry James, their presence does encourage attempts to unify the novel’s heterogeneous parts. However, any interpretation that seeks to unify all of the novel’s diverse elements is bound to be somewhat unconvincing. This is not because such an interpretation necessarily stiffens into a thesis (although rigidity in any interpretation of this or of any novel is always a danger), but because Wuthering Heights has recalcitrant elements of undeniable power that, ultimately, resist inclusion in an allencompassing interpretation. In this respect, Wuthering Heights shares a feature of Hamlet.
5. According to the passage, which of the following is a true statement about the first and second parts of Wuthering Heights ?
A. The second part has received more attention from critics.
B. The second part has little relation to the first part.
C. The second part annuls the force of the first part.
D. The second part provides less substantiation for a romantic reading.
E. The second part is better because it is more realistic.
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6. Which of the following inferences about Henry James’s awareness of novelistic construction is best supported by the passage?
A. James, more than any other novelist, was aware of the difficulties of novelistic construction.
B. James was very aware of the details of novelistic construction.
C. James’s awareness of novelistic construction derived from his reading of Brontë.
D. James’s awareness of novelistic construction has led most commentators to see unity in his individual novels.
E. James’s awareness of novelistic construction precluded him from violating the unity of his novels.
7. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree that an interpretation of a novel should
A. not try to unite heterogeneous elements in the novel
B. not be inflexible in its treatment of the elements in the novel
C. not argue that the complex use of narrators or of time shifts indicates a sophisticated structure
D. concentrate on those recalcitrant elements of the novel that are outside the novel’s main structure
E. primarily consider those elements of novelistic construction of which the author of the novel was aware
For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
8. The author of the passage suggests which of the following about Hamlet?
A. Hamlet has usually attracted critical interpretations that tend to stiffen into theses.
B. Hamlet has elements that are not amenable to an all-encompassing critical interpretation.
C. Hamlet is less open to an all-encompassing critical interpretation than is Wuthering Heights.
Whether the languages of the ancient American peoples were used for expressing abstract universal concepts can be clearly answered in the case of Nahuatl. Nahuatl, like Greek and German, is a language that allows the formation of extensive compounds. By the combination of radicals or semantic elements, single compound words can express complex conceptual relations, often of an abstract universal character.
The tlamatinime (those who know) were able to use this rich stock of abstract terms to express the nuances of their thought. They also availed themselves of other forms of expression with metaphorical meaning, some probably original, some derived from Toltec coinages. Of these forms, the most characteristic in Nahuatl is the juxtaposition of two words that, because they are synonyms, associated terms, or even contraries, complement each other to evoke one single idea. Used metaphorically, the juxtaposed terms connote specific or essential traits of the being they refer to, introducing a mode of poetry as an almost habitual form of expression.
For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
1. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage regarding present-day research relating to Nahuatl?
A. Some record or evidence of the thought of the tlamatinime is available.
B. For at least some Nahuatl expressions, researchers are able to trace their derivation from another ancient American language.
C. Researchers believe that in Nahuatl, abstract universal concepts are always expressed metaphorically.
2. Select the sentence in the passage in which the author introduces a specific Nahuatl mode of expression that is not identified as being shared with certain European languages.
3. In the context in which it appears, “coinages” (line 9) most nearly means
A. adaptations
B. creations
C. idiosyncrasies
D. pronunciations
E. currencies
At a certain period in Earth’s history, its atmosphere contained almost no oxygen, although plants were producing vast quantities of oxygen. As a way of reconciling these two facts, scientists have hypothesized that nearly all of the oxygen being produced was taken up by iron on Earth’s surface. Clearly, however, this explanation is inadequate. New studies show that the amount of iron on Earth’s surface was not sufficient to absorb anywhere near as much oxygen as was being produced. Therefore, something in addition to the iron on Earth’s surface must have absorbed much of the oxygen produced by plant life.
4. In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
A. The first is a claim made by the argument in support of a certain position; the second is that position.
B. The first is a judgment made by the argument about a certain explanation; the second is that explanation.
C. The first expresses the argument’s dismissal of an objection to the position it seeks to establish; the second is that position.
D. The first sums up the argument’s position with regard to a certain hypothesis; the second provides grounds for that position.
E. The first is a concession by the argument that its initial formulation of the position it seeks to establish requires modification; the second presents that position in a modified form.
Animal signals, such as the complex songs of birds, tend to be costly. A bird, by singing, may forfeit time that could otherwise be spent on other important behaviors such as foraging or resting. Singing may also advertise an individual’s location to rivals or predators and impair the ability to detect their approach. Although these types of cost may be important, discussions of the cost of singing have generally focused on energy costs. Overall the evidence is equivocal: for instance, while Eberhardt found increases in energy consumption during singing for Carolina wrens, Chappell found no effect of crowing on energy consumption in roosters.
To obtain empirical data regarding the energy costs of singing, Thomas examined the relationship between song rate and overnight changes in body mass of male nightingales. Birds store energy as subcutaneous fat deposits or “body reserves”; changes in these reserves can be reliably estimated by measuring changes in body mass. If singing has important energy costs, nightingales should lose more body mass on nights when their song rate is high. Thomas found that nightingales reached a significantly higher body mass at dusk and lost more mass overnight on nights when their song rate was high.
These results suggest that there may be several costs of singing at night associated with body reserves. The increased metabolic cost of possessing higher body mass contributes to the increased overnight mass loss. The strategic regulation of evening body reserves is also likely to incur additional costs, as nightingales must spend more time foraging in order to build up larger body reserves. The metabolic cost of singing itself may also contribute to increased loss of reserves. This metabolic cost may arise from the muscular and neural activity involved in singing or from behaviors associated with singing. For example, birds may expend more of their reserves on thermoregulation if they spend the night exposed to the wind on a song post than if they are in a sheltered roost site.
Thomas’s data therefore show that whether or not singing per se has an important metabolic cost, metabolic costs associated with singing can have an important measurable effect on a bird’s daily energy budget, at least in birds with high song rates such as nightingales.
9. The primary purpose of the passage is to
A. compare the different types of cost involved for certain birds in singing
B. question a hypothesis regarding the energy costs of singing for certain birds C. present evidence suggesting that singing has an important energy cost for certain birds
D. discuss the benefits provided to an organism by a behavior that is costly in energy
E. describe an experiment that supports an alternative model of how birdsong functions
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For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
10. The passage implies that during the day before a night on which a male nightingale’s song rate is high, that nightingale probably does which of the following?
A. Expends less of its reserves on thermoregulation than on other days
B. Stores more energy as body reserves than on other days
C. Hides to avoid predators
11. Select the sentence in the first or second paragraph that presents empirical results in support of a hypothesis about the energy costs of singing.
For the following question, consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.
12. It can be inferred from the passage that compared with other costs of singing, which of the following is true of the energy costs of singing? A. They are the single greatest cost to an individual bird.
B. They have generally received more attention from scientists.
C. They vary less from one bird species to another.
