【GRE写作】Issue写作精品素材最全分享 经济类3
- 2015年08月31日14:55 来源：小站整理
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社会福利函数
The social welfare function is a way of mathematically stating the relative importance of the individuals that comprise society.
A utilitarian welfare function (also called a Benthamite welfare function) sums the utility of each individual in order to obtain society’s overall welfare. All people are treated the same, regardless of their initial level of utility. One extra unit of utility for a starving person is not seen to be of any greater value than an extra unit of utility for a millionaire. At the other extreme is the Max-Min function. According to the Max-Min criterion, welfare is maximized when the utility of those society members that have the least is the greatest. No economic activity will increase social welfare unless it improves the position of the society member that is the worst off. Most economists specify social welfare functions that are intermediate between these two extremes.
The social welfare function is typically translated into social indifference curves so that they can be used in the same graphic space as the other functions that they interact with. A utilitarian social indifference curve is linear and downward sloping to the right. The Max-Min social indifference curve takes the shape of two straight lines joined so as they form a 90 degree angle. A social indifference curve drawn from an intermediate social welfare function is a curve that slopes downward to the right.
公共财政的三大必要性
1. Governments provide public goods—government-financed items and services such as roads, military forces, lighthouses, and street lights. Private citizens would not voluntarily pay for these services, and therefore businesses have no incentive to produce them.
2. Public finance also enables governments to correct or offset undesirable side effects of a market economy. These side effects are called spillovers or externalities. For example, households and industries may generate pollution and release it into the environment without considering the adverse effect pollution has on others. If it costs less to pollute than not to, people and businesses
have a financial incentive to continue polluting. Pollution is a spillover because it affects people who are not responsible for it. To correct a spillover, governments can encourage or restrict certain activities. For example, governments can sponsor recycling programs to encourage less pollution, pass laws that restrict pollution, or impose charges or taxes on activities that cause pollution.
3. Public finance provides government programs that moderate the incomes of the wealthy and the poor. These programs include social security, welfare, and other social programs. For example, some elderly people or people with disabilities require financial assistance because they cannot work. Governments redistribute income by collecting taxes from their wealthier citizens to provide resources for their needy ones. The taxes fund programs that help support people with low incomes.
政府花费的两大形式
Government spending takes two forms: exhaustive spending and transfer spending. Exhaustive spending refers to purchases made by a government for the production of public goods. For example, to construct a new harbor the government buys and uses resources from the economy, such as labor and raw materials. In transfer spending the government transfers income to people to help them support themselves. Transfers can be one of two kinds: cash or in-kind. Cash transfers are cash payments, such as social security checks and welfare payments. In-kind transfers involve no cash payments but instead transfer goods or services to recipients. Examples of in-kind transfers include food stamp coupons and Medicare. Recipients of food stamp coupons exchange the coupons for groceries.
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